The excerpt from Leon Battista Alberti “On Painting De Pictura, Della Pictura” describes the introduction to painting. Alberti addresses how someone should begin learning how to paint. After almost 7 years of serious painting I would say my approach to beginning a painting has reverted back to the basics of starting with “each distinct form of each member”. Beauty within art is a very common topic. The painter will try and render the scene, humans, object, or anything else that is the subject of the painting, to be more beautiful than it appears in real life. This could be seen as flawed reality. However, the job of a painter to relay a moment in time and space could never fully hold qualities of reality. The emotions and environment will dictate the outcome of the painting. In my own paintings, I have been told that I choose to render my portraits and figures of live models to be more beautiful. However, painting is a platform for me to show the rest of the world how I see things. It also gives me an excuse to look at something a little longer than would be socially acceptable. The excerpt concludes that the action of painting can have a general result of rendering from nature that will automatically look as though it has been “drawn from nature”. I agree with this statement because we as humans are already a natural element in the world. Our creations are just an outward extension of ourselves.
Throughout time human instincts have not changed. This can be seen through basic body language. When an artist can capture these undeniably recognizable poses, it connects with the audience on a fundamental level. The “A Narrative of Rape” painted by Artemisia Gentileschi and written by Jeanne Morgan Zarucchi, exhibits the body language of a woman resisting violence. These paintings are from 1593-1652ca. and struck me in different ways. As a woman on a college campus I am aware of the threat of rape. The successful aspects in the paintings are by far the attention to detail in the body language. For example, when the female figures are clenching their fists or crossing their legs, it conveys a sense of struggle. Additionally, I connect to the resistance of a woman represented with her eyes closed. This minor detail to me creates the meaning behind the painting. Even as a child when something scares us the natural thing to do is to cover your eyes as to not be exposed to the reality of the situation. The act of closing one's eyes signifies the desire to deny reality, which is one aspect that the victim of rape could be portraying. As such, I believe that Artemisia Gentileschi’s paintings hold a timeless quality and contine the conversation of rape even today.
In the excerpt of “Principles of Art History” the author Heinrich Wölffing discusses the difference between the technique terms “ linear and painterly”. By comparing Dürer’s linear style to Rembrandt’s and many other painterly mode works, he develops the idea that linear paintings hold qualities of sharp outlining, distinct distinguished forms, and being stagnant, and that painterly paintings hold qualities of light and shadow, movement and life, and depicting the real world of blurring masses and nature. In class we have been looking at works that have tenebrism and chiaroscuro, both which could be found more in “painterly” like paintings that model forms in a realistic manner by capturing dramatic light and dark. I personally believe that “painterly” paintings hold more qualities true to nature and “[o]nly the appearance of reality is seized- something ..different from linear art.” This allows paintings like St Jerome by Ostade to come alive through the uncertainty or forms. It allows the viewer to engage more rather have everything be clearly defined and it creates more dramatic moments because of the use of light and darkness.
In The "Degenerate Art" Exhibition as Political Spectacle by Neil Levi, I realized how much art truly has an impact and can be a source of power for political leaders. I saw this especially in the exhibitions of The Great German and the Degenerate Art in Nazi Germany. The Great German exhibit, allowed the Nazi party to distinguish themselves among the common man, but then they reached out and invited the population to join them in an event curated and censored by them. The Nazis could use art and the social aspects of art gallery showings as a form of propaganda. They heavily censored the pieces selected, by only allowing work after 1910 so as to not highlight the decay of Germany, and artists like Emil Nodle, who was a member of the Nazi party. All their actions were to spread further propaganda that displayed the success of the Nazi party. The Nazis heavily restricted the exhibition of Jewish art pieces. Furthermore, text was heavily used throughout the exhibition. Bold font and impressive quotes were captioned to every piece forcing the viewer to have a molded understanding and thoughts of the work. It restricted the imagination and the individuality of experiencing art. This is where I notice how powerful art can be within a society. It is a form of documentation and an expression of the mental, physical, and spiritual. However, the Nazis were very clever in their curation of the two exhibits. In contrast the art pieces in the Degenerate Art exhibit were directly parallel to the works within The Great German, where works in the Degenerate Art “mock” and “degenerate” ideas, morals, and beliefs. After reading this article, I understood the social, political, and spiritual impact art has on a society, and how powerful people may censor or create misconceptions of art. It is interesting to compare our own society today where each President will have a commision done for them as a display of immortality and gratitude for their service to their country. It allows us to think about the value of freedom within art in our society. Additionally it causes us to consider the power an “abject” piece of art work could be used to impose certain ideas.
Art History Notes:
a) In Venitian Renaissance the paintings were luminous and were painted with sensuous colors. The overall depiction of figures in space was vibrant. However, in the Italian Renaissance they represented true and exact form and color.
b) In this painting Titian used the impasto technique of thickly applied paint in oil paint. One can tell by the violent brushstrokes and paint creating depth. The dark reds and yellows emphasized the living flesh. c) The motivation for Titian to paint this way was to represent reality especially if the reality is gruesomely brutal and aesthetically pleasing to look at. This caused conceptual consequences of his choices. It takes a greek mythology and connects it to biblical historical events and depicts it as something that is not attached to holiness and purity. As seen in the Venitian Renaissance paintings, the subject matter was biblical and represented in a very light beautiful matter. Titian uses a greek myth to contrast the reality of a scene like this to the biblical events.
a) Caravaggio’s The Calling of Saint Matthew is a response to counter reformation. In this painting he uses dramatic tenebrism. This can be seen in the extreme rendering of light and dark. Especially, where the black shadows seem to envelope the figures legs under the table to the left and the two figures standing to the right. Not only is there a symmetric composition within this painting, but there is a symbolic and spiritual composition. The arrangement of elements and figures creates a very complex narrative that represents the biblical story of Saint Matthew being called by Jesus to follow him.
b) Carravaggio painted common figures in a contemporary time. He detached the figures from idealized beauty from the Venitain Renaissance style and placed them in a setting that was seedy and immoral. This piece was seen as “ vulgar and filthy” because he depicted a scene of religion in an unholy place. This can be seen in the dirt of the window pain and the bare feet of the front standing figure. He creates a more pedestrian setting and allows people of all types to relate to this. c) This painting promotes a pious response from the viewer by breaking the idealized spirituality from the high renaissance and placing this spiritual force in an immediate environment. This was also a response to the counter reformation. It shows a contemporary environment with the same redemption story of Saint Matthew. This can be seen in the greed that is displayed through the body language of the money counters. They wear beautiful and expensive clothes and carry weapons. This suggests that these men are using this money for their own benefit. Carravaggio ties spiritually down to the common man. This allows the viewer to place it out of context and relate it back to their personal lives.
3. a) The Ecstasy of St. Theresa is placed in the Cornaro Chapel surrounded by multiple forms of art. The artist Bernini was a sculpture and an architect who was extremely interested in theater. Bel composo could be seen as a stage that is set with the various parts. The Ecstasy of St. Theresa includes sculpture, architecture, stained glass, and paintings all within the chapel which is inside the church. The sculpture of Theresa is set within its own mini stage. It is lit with a stage like light and draws your attention to the white sculpture against the gold rays and green marble. b) The Ecstasy of St. Theresa also includes Sotto Insu where the eye of the viewer is drawn from the bottom to the top of the ceiling. The ensemble enables the viewers to have a sensual response. However, the eye pauses on the sculpture. This sculpture may cause the viewers to have many different responses because of the different way of displaying the spiritual with the physical. It may also cause a pious response. Based off of the encounter St. Theresa wrote about, the viewer realizes this is a spiritual moment. The portrayal is shown through the body and its response in the divine interference. This sexual portrayal of St. Theresa uses the baroque style to allude to the miraculous.
4.Rembrandt challenged the traditional Dutch convention of the group portrait with the Night Watch painting through the use of light and dark, staging of the figures, and development of an engrossing narrative. The group portraits of that time were painted as if it were a class photo. Everyone's face was equally shown clearly and identifiable. Figures would be placed in a line or in a staggered line where they would not overlap. Each figure would be represented standing still or sitting. The light would be even within the whole composition. However, in the Night Watch, Rembrandt uses uneven light, a hierarchy in portraits, and individual action among each character. The uneven light is seen where he chooses to highlight certain parts of the painting creating extreme depth. As you look to the background the space is black making objects and figures almost unidentifiable. The baroque painting style can be seen by the representation of a moment. Perhaps this was the captain giving orders to his militia. This also develops the importance of figures within the setting. The captain with his lieutenant are placed in the middle and are lit very well. Unlike a traditional group painting, Remberandt takes into consideration the individual thoughts and actions of the surrounding figures. He makes the interaction with this painting very personal. The viewers are intrigued by the narrative and the fact that some figures are hidden or distorted. Additionally, Rembrandt adds figures like the little girls and the dog to develop the portarti and narrative even further. Through painting the figures with uneven light and overlapping and distortion, this painting becomes more important than other Dutch portrait paintings of the time.
Material Inquiry:
Material 1: Bronze Material 2: Wool Material 3: Aluminum
What is a typical use
Material 1: Bronze is typically used to make musical instruments and medals, and in industrial applications such as bushings and bearings. Material 2: Wool is typically used to knit together clothes on a smaller scale. Material 3: Aluminum is typically used for a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, and window frames.
Describe the physical properties in your own words
Material 1: Bronze is originally a orange color Material 2: Wool is usually very soft and stringy. Since it is a fiber it is composed out of several different strands to form one string. Most times wool is itchy as well. It comes in all kinds of different colors with synthetically dyed or naturally dyed processes. Material 3: Aluminum is a silver metal. It is very shiny and is often associated with kitchen utensils and aluminum foil to wrap food in.
What are its strengths and weaknesses
Material 1: Bronze does not corrode as much as other metals. Additionally it conducts heat and electricity. However it is a soft metal as well and it is more expensive than steel. Material 2: Wool cannot be exposed to rain or ultraviolet light. Additionally it takes a long time to hand knit. However, it is very durable as seen in the Woods of Net by Tezuka Architects sculpture. Inside there is a hand knit structure where children are allowed to climb around and hang from it. Additionally, no pollution can penetrate the fibre. Dirt will sit outside of the fibers. Material 3: Aluminum is a soft and lightweight metal. When combined with other metals it becomes more durable. However it can also thin out faster than steel, and will weaken when repeated stress is applied.
Where does this material originate
Material 1: “Around 3500 BC the first signs of bronze usage by the ancient Sumerians started to appear in the Tigris Euphrates valley in Western Asia. One theory suggests that bronze may have been discovered when copper and tin-rich rocks were used to build campfire rings.” Material 2: “Woolly sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog. Prior to invention of shears—probably in the Iron Age—the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs” Material 3: “To make aluminium the ore (bauxite) must first be mined. The main sources of bauxite are in Australia, South America and Africa, but other countries including China, Jamaica, India and USA also have large amounts of the ore.”
Is the material renewable
Material 1: No Material 2: Yes Material 3: Yes
Is this material recyclable or commonly reused
Material 1: Yes, it is recyclable Material 2: Yes, it is biodegradable. Material 3: Yes, it is recyclable , however not concentrated.
Is the production/ manipulation of this material environmentally responsible?
Material 1: “Bronze metals have always been recyclable, sustainable and environmentally friendly.” Material 2: Wool is “biodegradable and kinder to the environment than oil-based synthetics, which contribute to global pollution.” Material 3: Aluminum “is also highly sustainable, environmentally friendly and almost endlessly recyclable.”
Is this material locally available
Material 1: Yes Home Depot or Walmart Material 2: Yes Micheals or Walmart Material 3: Yes Home Depot or Walmart
Give an example of cost for specific size or volume
Material 1: Bronze casts “from a mold costs, say $1000, then making the mold from the clay could be about $600.” Material 2:Wool can be “$5-$18 each; and some imported or rare yarns can be $20-$40 or more per package” Material 3: Aluminum at Home Depot “26 in. x 59 in. Metallic Brush Silver Self-adhesive Vinyl Film”
What are some societal perceptions of this material? How might this impact our view and how we use it?
Material 1: When working with Bronze there will be metal dust. “Studies show that toxic metals contribute to brain diseases by producing oxidative stress and bronze is one of the worst offenders. The prevailing belief around the world is that bronze is linked to degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.” Keeping this in mind I would make sure to have the proper respiration equipment and the proper means to dispose of the dust. Material 2: The sheep are not treated well. “In Australia, the most commonly raised sheep are merinos, specifically bred to have wrinkly skin, which means more wool per animal. This unnatural overload of wool causes animals to die of heat exhaustion during hot months, and the wrinkles also collect urine and moisture.” I would make sure that the wool that I am buying I would know the origins of the material. I like to buy free range and cage eggs just because I like to know that animals are treated well. The same could be done with wool. Material 3: Aluminum attacks your central nervous system. Studies show that toxic metals contribute to brain diseases by producing oxidative stress, and aluminum is one of the worst offenders. Aluminum is linked to degenerative brain diseases.” Again I would make sure that I am wearing the proper equipment. However I would say I would be hesitant to work with these materials that cause brain damage.
Cited Work:
“Infographic: History of Bronze Timeline.” History of Bronze Infographic | About | Website | Makin Metal Powders (UK), www.makin-metals.com/about/history-of-bronze-infographic/.
Duration Windows. “Commercial Entrance Doors.” Duration Windows, www.duration.co.uk/AluminiumSustainability.asp. “d-c-Fix 26 in. x 59 in. Metallic Brush Silver Self-Adhesive Vinyl Film for Furniture and Door
Renovation/Decoration F3408045.” The Home Depot, www.homedepot.com/p/d-c-fix-26-in-x-59-in-Metallic-Brush-Silver-Self-adhesive-Vinyl-Film-for-Furniture-and-Door-Renovation-Decoration-F3408045/303789292.
Hotzehealth. “5 Reasons to Avoid Aluminum.” Hotze Health & Wellness Center, 20 Apr. 2018, www.hotzehwc.com/2018/04/5-reasons-to-avoid-aluminum/.
The Young Shepherdess by William-Adolphe Bouguereau was painted during the neoclassicism movement which emphasized inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. The Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich was painted during the romanticism movement which emphasized inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual. Both landscape paintings have a different point of entry that is caused by the relationship created by the figure with the audience. However, the rendering of the figures, color, light, and composition are very similar. The Young Shepherdess is a painting that is oriented vertically. It is in a thin long frame that barely encompasses the landscape in the figure. The figure of the young girl draws the most attention to the eye because it is the largest most recognizable object within the painting. Additionally, she is looking towards us and engages the audience more. The girl's face is soft and holds no expression. She has dark hair that is tied up in a loose bun. The girl has a slight curve to her back as she looks over her right shoulder. She holds a branch in both of her hands behind her back. She wears clothes of the time period: a long skirt with a corset top. She is also barefoot. In the distance one can see a few sheep to the right. In the further distance one can make out the vast landscape. The painting has cool colors towards the back where the distance is suggested of the mountains, and the same cool colors are found in the skirt of her dress. Around her are natural warm colors that are mimicked in her face as well. Based off of the title one can conclude that she is shepherding the sheep to the right. In the painting of the Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich, one can see a figure standing on top of a cliff looking down and out into the vast landscape. Based off of the title, one can conclude that he is looking down at the what is below him. The painting is mostly in cool light colors. However, the figure on top of the rock formation is painted with dark colors that are mimicked in the rocks. The figure seems to be a middle aged man who is well dressed with a walking stick in his right hand. He has blonde hair. In the near distance you can make out similar rock formations to the one that he stands on with to the right a little bit more plant life. To diagonals point towards the figure in the far distance. These diagonals could be clouds or the mountains. In the very far distance one can make out mountains and further rock formations. All of the landscape is covered by light clouds that seem to be moving from left to right with that wind. Both paintings have a muted color palette. Large portions of the paintings have cool colors that depict the airy breezy qualities. The clouds seem to float along in the path of the wind. The hair on both figures are flowing in the wind. There is also detail and attention to clothes. They not only describe the figure, but the historical context and time period as well. In the distance, the paintings seem to be silent. The clouds are very light and the vast nature seems peaceful. In both paintings the figures and the viewers are in awe of the vastness. Compositionally, the figures are in the foreground and are centrally located. It includes a slight depiction of plant life with trees and bushes in the distance. Normally landscape paintings are horizontal as to have more of a panoramic quality. However, both these paintings are vertical landscapes, which allows both of them to confront the idea of man versus nature. It portrays the power both man and nature have in our universe. Though the ideas of man versus nature are depicted differently through both paintings. In the Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, the man is almost portrayed as a conqueror of the cliff he just climbed. He is looking down and out into the land he just covered. This gives the viewer a sense of victory and dominance over nature. However, in the Young Shepherdess, the young girl is connected to the earth. She is bare foot and holds a branch in her hands. She has a responsibility to the land and its creatures. She is looking at you gently as if to invite you into the painting and to join her in her patient work of watching her sheep. As described in the article Artble “By placing [the wanderer’s] back toward the viewer he is not shutting them out”. It talks about the composition for the figures enabling the viewer to see the world through his perspective. This allows both the viewer and the figure to share his personal experience. In the article Unraveling the Mysteries behind Caspar David Friedrich’s Wanderer, it talks about the physicality of the environment. “You feel that those summits that you see in the fog are not just figments of an artists imagination.” Additionally, in the article Friedrich’s Artworks, the nature around the wanderer is described as “a sheer demonstration of power and what natural forces can accomplish.” This might be due to the fact that Friedrich was heavily inspired by German nature. All of his landscape paintings are influenced by Germany. Combining the figure and the landscape allows the viewer to have a very intimate and physical experience when looking at this painting. The article Bougueraue Arworks and Famous Paintings describes the heavy influence of “commercializing attitude to the Naturalistic style”, the Young Shepherdess. In this Neoclassical painting one can see the heavy influences of traditional naturalism, especially in the figure. The figure is fully depicted and precisely rendered. She is a position that captures slight movement and she holds a gaze with the audience. The emphasis on the female body is described in the article William- Adolphe Bouguereau. Bouguereau was a very traditional painter and his “photo realistic styles were popular with his rich patrons.” The article San Diego Museum of Art Debut refers to the purpose behind the painting. It was made of “ the upper class who continued looking back while the world changed around them,” because neoclassicism was a movement that only paints traditional values. At first glance I would honestly not have been able to tell which painting was painted during the romanticism or neoclassical movement because they hold very similar qualities with light, color, and composition. However, after comparing both paintings, I noticed that the entrance point to a painting determines the overall mood and meaning of the piece. In these two paintings, it is noticeable with the body language of the figures. The distinguishing factor between the two pieces is that the Young Shepherdess has direct eye contact with the viewer, allowing it to have an intimate relationship that is often seen with classical traditional paintings. Overall, these two paintings are both unique depictions on very epic landscape paintings that have the viewer in awe.
Art History Minor- American Photography
Photographers serve to document specific communities. This occurs when they go out and live among the people and capture moments of human nature. However, their perspective becomes very significant and important in capturing moments where human nature is defined. It is almost as if the photograph of communities and societies is the same as animals in their natural habitat where habit and flock mentality are similar traits found. The display of both of these identical settings convey extremely different feelings based on how the different types of communities are interacting within the image. In the first community documentation image, by Robert Frank, there is an emphasis on feeding the masses, the American diner, and post war production. The community he focuses on are customers at the counter who are all white men. In contrast to behind the counter, serving the men are three women. It may be that these men have just returned from the war and are being documented to show their transition into the civilian world. The perspective of the image emphasizes the long counter and the mass of the men getting fed. It leads the eye straight down the counter that is squished in a tight space between the wall. One can see large advertisements hanging from the ceiling. This gives us a sense of influence and propaganda in their lives. Something that large and ‘in your face’ can only serve to build the flock mentality. Many of them are either enjoying their meal, have already had their meal, or waiting for their meal to be served. However, they all have similar expressions of hunger. The second image community documentation reflects the civil right movement where protestors, mainly black, would sit at counters to demonstrate that they too should have equality. In contrast to the first image, the second image is taken a couple years into the future. These three brave protestors are fighting for all types of people to share the similar right to get served a hot meal at the counter. The setting of the American diner is still visible even though the diner is crowded with people. There is the classic metallic counter with the high chairs and the large food advertisements in the back. It seems as if the men from the first image are now the harassers crowded in the second image. They are trying to deny the basic freedom that these two women and one man are trying to fight for. “Black protestors made an unmistakable claim for their right to and fitness of freedom.” (Race,Visuality, and History. Berger, Martin). The community of the protestors at that time were defined as a race who would not ever have the same rights and equalities as the white man, the superior race. These feelings and ideas are evident when looking at this image. These men have the same look in their faces of hunger and the blank faces that make them all sheep. Just like all the advertisements for orange whip they are influenced by what is so plainly enforced and ingrained in their brains without having an opinion of their own. Both images have a sense that a lot of time has passed. In the first image, the men are seen sitting and waiting for a meal. However, in the second image, the time passed can be seen with the accumulation of salt or sugar shaken unto the man sitting. It is almost as if the same characters (the white men) from behind the booth are the same characters (the white men) who are assaulting the porterstors in the second image. This is ironic because these men were just performing the same action, of sitting and waiting to be served or to get their meal, that now these three people are fighting for the right for. Human nature becomes animalistic when the predator, the white men, feel dominant over their prey, the protestors. However, “Black [and white] protestors, who in the face of unconscionable aggression, remained composed and non-violent in their fight for civil rights,” fighting off the natural human instinct to protect oneself. (Race,Visuality, and History. Berger, Martin)
Robert Frank
Truth is something that is very hard to define. It is hard to distinguish even more when it is put into a photograph. There is a certain type of truth that is assumed to exist when a photo is taken. Unlike any other art form, it captures what is right in front of you in that exact moment. “Photographs furnish evidence” (In Plato’s Cave. Sontag, Susan). This is an interesting quote by Sontag because she uses the word furnishes. The word furnishes means to supply or give to (someone) something that is needed or wanted. Photography can be a platform for evidence and therefore truth. However, full truth is denied once photoshop was accessible to everyone. It was also denied once everyone was able to own a camera at their fingertips and the knowledge of manipulation to the image. Both of these images below are moments captured before catastrophe, death, and destruction. However, one was photoshopped and one was not. The fact that both of these images play with the idea of life and death is a very dark matter in which photography falls in the middle. These images captured are eerie in the fact that the photographer has now captured a moment in which the men standing in the image no longer exist in real life but in this image only. Additionally, these images play off of each other in a historical context. The image of the war in Iraq is a consequence of the image of the plane crashing in New York City. The first image when looked at initially one just looks at it for its description of a moment in Iraq. There is no violence depicted therefore incurring questions of doubt like the troops in Iraq do not seem to be doing anything why are they there? The truthfulness behind this image is questioned because the depiction of this brave man is initially tilted at first glance. The viewer is unaware of the circumstances or the human behind the uniform. The viewer immediately thinks to war as a symbol of death, and they place their opinions of the Iraq war onto the uniformed man. However once we learn the story of the sergeant we begin to empathize with him and his family. The photographer Ashley Gilbertson said “Later I found his full name—Sergeant Freeman L. Gardner Jr.—at the Department of Defense’s website, in a press release about his death. He was from Little Rock, went to the movies every Saturday with his wife, and loved video games and college football. The DOD release begins, “The Department of Defense announced today the death of a soldier who was supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom.” He was twenty-six years old.”(Gilbertson, A., Vaidhyanathan, S., Petrusich, A., Bradley, R., Kolbe, L., & Alison, J. (n.d.). Last Photographs.RetrievedDecember12,2020). The fact that he could be described as a typical American man who loved his wife and family, leaves the viewer with feeling very emotional. Additionally, the fact that this is the last image of him alive definitely highlights the fact that photography can be a very haunting thing. The photographer is also haunted by this image. The thought that he captured the picture of the Sargent that is immortal but that the Sergeant is not. However, this somber tone is immediately changed once we realize that the image of the man on the twin towers is photoshopped to include the plane. It is sickening to think that someone would so lightly edit this image to infer mass destruction in their own country. Originally, this image was just passed around to friends as a joke, but then surfaced the internet and now is viral. Even though this image is fake, it holds some truth to it. At that moment before the plane crashed into the twin towers, there could have been tourists just like this man taking photographs that would have looked like this one. These images make the viewer question the idea of truth and the power of photography. Which image holds more truth? Both images allow the viewer to see some form of truth they would not have seen otherwise. With background information and perspective, photography and photoshop can be a tool to convey different types of truths to the world. However, being in the moment as a photographer and capturing the raw life is that ultimate truth and evidenced that only photography can ‘furnish’.
Middle Eastern Politics- Ethiopian Art thought History
Cultural Production in Ethiopia
The Nile is an entity that has been a great provider for many people throughout time. The river was critical to the development of ancient Egypt by providing fertile land. In addition to Egypt, the Nile runs through or along the border of 10 other African countries: Burundi, Tanzania, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia, and South Sudan. The origin of the Nile is believed to be in Ethiopia. The Blue Nile begins near Lake Tana in Ethiopia. The relationship between cultural production and the Nile is very important. They are known for their distinctive tradition of Christian art, mostly for churches, in forms including painting, crosses, icons, illuminated manuscripts, and other metal work such as crowns. Four art pieces are important to understanding three distinct periods within Ethiopian history. The first time period is the The Early Solomonic period, 1270-1527. The cultural production of this time period produced beautiful manuscript illuminations and painted icons. At the time the leader Zagwe was overthrown by Yekunno Amlak, a king from Aksumite, the former capital of Ethiopia. His lineage is from King Solomon, who is a king from the Bible. Yekunno Amlak was the founder of the Solomonic dynasty, also known as ሰለሞናዊው ሥርወ መንግሥት, the House of Solomon, where its members claim lineal descent from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Solomon was the son of David and Bathsheba. In the bible the king is famous for his wisdom. In 1 Kings God appeared to Solomon and he asked for God to give him the gift of wisdom. However, in the end he became prideful and went away from God. He then rejected his own religion and embraced pagan rituals It is believed that the queen gave birth to Menelik I after her visit to Solomon in Jerusalem described in the Bible. The Solomonic dynasty was very important to Judaism and later formed Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. Yekuno Amlak, an Amhara prince from the old province Bet Amhara, re-established the dynasty. However the Zagwe dynasty, ዛጔ ሥርወ መንግሥት, was a dynasty centered around in North Africa. Zagwe's best-known King was Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, who is credited with having constructed the rock-hewn monolithic churches of Lalibela. There is a lot of mystery within the Zagwe period because there are not very many records found. Yekuno Amlak endowed many churches with hundreds of precious gifts. He also encouraged the use of panel paintings in church rituals. The beautiful manuscript illuminations and painted icons were embellished with depictions of saints and of the Virgin and Child . The earliest surviving Ethiopian icons also date from this century. Below is the first piece of art from the Early Solomonic period:
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with decoration as initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. A common theme that will be identified in Ethiopian Coptic Christian art is the style in which figures are rendered. In the Early Solomonic Period the style could be considered cartoony. In which the figures have very similar features like the eyes and noses. On the lower half of the painting, there are two rows of all males with a prominent middle figure standing. The first row could be kneeling or sitting. They are all wearing similar clothes with the same pattern of red, yellow, and light brown. These colors may be representative of the traditional dress that the men wear in Ethiopia. The representation of the figures hold slight resemblance to the complexion of native Ethiopians seen in the men who have dark short hair with a dark short beard and black eyes. However their light skin suggests influence from European styles of art. The non realistic elements that make it seem almost like a cartoon is the fact that most of the figures do not have mouths, arms or legs. The figures in the second row as well as the standing middle figure also have unnaturally long pointer fingers and arms. When looking at this illumination there is not a clear sign of Ethiopian identity within the piece, in the way that the figures have been portrayed The biblical context within this illuminated manuscript are the gospels. Four Evangelists depicted are Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. They are the authors of the four Gospels in the New Testament. They can be seen as symbolized through iconography. Mathew is symbolized by a winged man, or angel. This signifies that Christians should use their reason for salvation. Mark is symbolized by a winged lion. This signifies that Christians should be courageous on the path of salvation. Luke is symbolized by a winged ox or bull. This signifies that Christians should be prepared to sacrifice themselves in following Christ. John is symbolized by an eagle. This symbolizes that Christians should look on eternity without flinching as they journey towards their goal of union with God. Unlike many paintings of the evangelists, they are represented in a very simple manner with clear lines and color. Again, their dress is similar to the men below and their arms and hands are very irregular and cartoony. The second time period is within the Solomonic period known as the mid-Solomonic period, 1527-1632. In this short time period there were many events that caused transition within art. It reflects the difficult situation the country was in. First, there was the invasion from the neighboring Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Ethiopian–Adal War was a military conflict between the Ethiopian Empire and the Adal Sultanate that took place from 1529 until 1543. He was known for his army. The army consisted mostly of Somalis. They pillaged and destroyed numerous churches and Christian works of art.The Adal Sultanate overthrew Ethiopia until the Oromo invasions of the later 16th century. This marked the end to Adal’s power. The Oromo-Cushitic ethnic group and nation are native to Ethiopia. They are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia and represent 45.5% of Ethiopia's population. These incursions strained the country’s fragile structures. Shortly after in 1622, Emperor Susenyos forced the conversion of Catholicism. However because of the unstable structure of the country, civil war erupted. Many refused to adhere to the religious beliefs and liturgical practices that the Jesuit missionaries present in Ethiopia wanted to enforce. This phase of Ethiopian art is known as the “transition”. From 1527-1632 it still included stylistic and iconographic elements. The practice of decorating manuscripts with pictures and geometric motifs declined considerably, and there were few crosses and churches. Numerous icons from this period have survived, including the ritual panel seen below:
Depicted in the center panel is the Theotokos, or Virgin Mary, with her Child, Baby Jesus. This piece has styles similar to versions of Byzantine art. However within Ethiopian art, Mary is always flanked by two archangels, on the center panel upper left and right, and an image of a mounted Saint George and the Dragon, on the left panel at the bottom, the dragon is cut off at the bottom. The legend is that Saint George slayed a dragon that demanded human sacrifices. The saint thereby rescued the princess chosen as the next offering. George is the patron saint of Ethiopia. He is also the patron saint of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. In Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity they place great significance to Mary. She is seen as a messenger for the humans to God or her son, Jesus. She intervenes in human affairs and will intercede for you on your behalf. All the figures within this art piece are depicted in a cartoon style. The figures are portrayed with simple lines and rendering of the figure. All the figures have similar features like the nose, eyes, mouth, and hands. However, the figures seem to adopt the Ethiopian identity more than the previous illustrated mauistricpt. In particular the rendering of the hair, where they all seem to have the African feature of thick curly hair in an Afro. Mary is the only figure not wearing the same hairstyle, in fact it could be described as in braids or dreads. Throughout the panel the colors of red, yellow, and blue are repeated. Compared to the illustrated manuscript the colors are more vibrant and highlight certain elements. The third period is the Gondarine period, 1632-1769, known for their narrative book illustrations and monumental church decorations. The new ruler is Fasilides, Ethiopian emperor, from 1632 to 1667, he is known for ending a period of contact between his country and Europe. Fasilides came to power formally relinquishing monarchical authority of the Susenyos in 1632. The Susenyos permitted an increase of Spanish and Roman Catholic influence in Ethiopia. Fasilides reestablished the relationship between the Ethiopian Coptic Christian Church and government. He did this by the expelling of Catholic missionaries. He also sought out the aid of the Muslim rulers so that they would protect Ethiopia from all the costal European countries. The creation of the new capital at Gondar also protected the throne from the danger of invasions of the south. Below is a similar panel to the one from the mid-Solomonic period:
In the Gondarine period there are two distinct stylistic phases that emerged. The first phase is known for its bright colors. There was no shading when rendering the figure.The clothing of the figures were embellished and decorative. The colors red, blue, and yellow became very distinct where the coral red was seen as the skin type. There were simple lines that contoured the figures. This still resulted in a cartoon style. The figures in this painting are very similar to the previous panel painting. The Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus can be seen in the middle being flanked by two archangels. On the right panel at the bottom Saint George is depicted slaying the dragon as well. However there are very distinct differences between the two panels in the way in which these figures are depreciated. Their features seem to be more African in the hair, skin, noses, and eyes. This may be due to the fact that Fasilides initiated a policy of isolation that lasted for more than two centuries for the country of Ethiopia. The disconnection of Ethiopia to Europe, allowed there to be more Ethiopian identity within their art.
Lastly, the Late Solomonic period from 1855-1974, the new ruler Tewodros II, also claimed to have Solomonic descent. The end of the Solomonic rule in Ethiopia is the deposition of Haile Selassie. Church painting continues but the patrons were now depicted with historical events and next to historical figures. This can be seen specifically in the Ethiopian national saga of the story of the Queen of Sheba visiting King Solomon. The Queen of Sheba is believed to have lived from 1001 - 955 BC. She exists in many cultures, including the Ethiopian, Jewish, Christian and even Islamic traditions. She is portrayed in many different ways some show her as very erotic while other show her as a noble African queen. She uniquely represents black beauty in the Hebrew Bible. The full version is found in the ክብረ ነገሥት (Glory of the Kings). The romantic legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon begins when Queen Sheba hears of Solomon’s great wisdom. She then sent a merchant to visit him. He came back with reports of elaborate worship to God and his great skills in building temples. She then decided to travel to Jerusalem and ‘test(ed) him with hard questions’, (Kings 1:10 of the Hebrew Bible). Queen Sheba was a clever woman and challenged the King with man riddles to test his knowledge. With the God given gift of knowledge, King Solomon was able to answer all her questions. Since she was Queen of great wealth, she offered many precious gifts. King Solomon would provide her protection over night in return that she did not take anything from his house. In a very sneaky and clever manner King Solomon tricked Queen Sheba into marrying him. He knew that she would want water in the middle of the night and placed a cup outside her door. In the night she was thirsty and drank from the cup. He then accused her of having broken her oath. The relationship between King Solomon and Queen Sheba was consummated that night. Before that, she had remained a virgin by choice. Queen Sheba gave birth to a son named Ibn-al-Malik, son of the king. Before the Queen returned to her Kingdom of Aksum, Solomon had given her a ring as a token of faith. Later in his life, Menelik questioned his mother about his father. She gave him the ring from Solomon. He knew about his father’s famous wisdom. He decided to visit Jerusalem and meet his father. He stayed in the King’s palace for three years. However before finally returning to Aksum, Menelik stole Solomon’s Art of Covenant. The Art of Covenant is believed to contain the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. The forty four vignettes below describe the saga: The cartoon boxes and strips are accompanied by a line of text written in Ge’ez, Ethiopian script. The cartoon outlines the saga described above. King Solomon is portrayed next to a lion to signify royalty, authority, power, and strength. On the third line down from the right the four consecutive boxes describe the moment where she drinks from the King’s water. Her skin color is seen as very dark as to signify that she is the African Queen compared to the Jewish King. In the last box of the cartoon the son, Menelik, is seen with the two stone tablets of the Ar of the Covenant. He is also portrayed with dark skin. The clothes drawn are also very distinct in color. In conclusion the historical context in Ethiopia is connected very distinctly to the artistic production of the Ethiopian culture. The influence of rulers at the time had a significant impact on cultural production, especially when looking at Ethiopian identity. The rule of the Jewish emperor Yekunno Amlak impacted the portrayal of figures in illustrated manuscripts where they seem to have Caucasian features. During the national unrest in the mid-Solomonic period there is a struggle to find identity within Ethiopia as seen in the painted panel where certain African features become more apparent. Then when Fasilides ruled Ethiopia there was a “transition” in Ethiopian art, especially seen in the panel compared to the mid Solomonic period, where the figures have a lot more African features. Finally, the national Ethiopian saga of Queen Sheba and King Solomon, completely encompasses the Ethiopian identity. The overlying connection throughout these images is that the cartoon style in which Ethiopian art was drawn or painted is very unified.
Roman History
3-Ways of Defining the Roman Border A border is a line between two countries that separates two political or geographical areas. However, when looking at the Roman Empire and its history the borders are constantly changing and therefore hard to define. The three main ways to define Roman borders are by: natural geographical boundaries, military borders, and provinces and cultural influences that go beyond the physical.
The geographical location of Rome allowed the Romans to gain perfect advantage over many facets towards the north, south, east, and west. However, natural boundaries such as mountains, rivers, deserts, and seas prevented and limited the expansion of this great empire. The border in Northern continental Europe was defined by the Rhine river and the Danube river. Southern Roman borders were defined by the Euphrates river. South Eastern borders were defined by the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East. For example the Sahara in North Africa, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. However, the Romans still controlled the Nile many kilometres into Africa. At the heart of the empire the Romans controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. However, all of these borders are not defined consistently around the Mediterraneas. There were still provinces outside of these hard physical borders. This makes it unclear where the final frontier of Rome is. When trying to define the borders of the Roman empire, cultures like the Gauls and the Germanii may have had a different perception of where the Roman borders were. Cultures and tribes that were conquered by the Romans would have a different understanding of the limits of Roman forces. The building of military boundaries dictated the physical limits of the Roman Empire. Since the beginning of the Roman military, building fortifications was the main mission and function of expansion. Additionally, they constructed infrastructure such as roads, walls, and bridges to mobilize their troops. There are two distinct military boundaries: forts and fortlets. The purposes for forts and fortlets were different. Symond describes fortlets to be a temporary structure that was built in response to crime and to surveil the people. Forts are a permanent structure that act as a militarily strong hold large enough to fit a garrison. Symonds emphasized the importance of fortlets. He states that the Romans had great success with ‘small solutions’(Symond). They formed lines of soldiers in fortlets and towers with enough manpower to provide ‘boots on the ground’(Symond). The Roman army defined themselves by mastering tactics and understanding terrain. By deploying small groups of soldiers in fortlets it allowed them to have a wide spread control along the borders. Military fortlets are the most concrete way in which archeologists and history can define the Roman borders. The most difficult way in which to define Roman borders was the expansion of cultural influence and identity. Roman identity was discovered in material culture and behavioral patterns even though identity is fluid. (Mattingly) The Roman influence expanded beyond the physical borderlands. Romanization was a strategy for social and economic ideas to promote Roman interest. Groupness is the idea that division between Romans and the “other” are not defined by geographical boundaries. Instead by differences in ethnicity, language, religion, communities, gender, etc. Identity is key to understanding Roman expansion because it is so dependent on defining itself in contrast to others. This gives insight to how these groups on the outside of the empire related to the idea of Romanness. However, “Roman identity was more a matter of law than of culture” (37) (Mattingly).When expanding into territory that had already been previously inhabited by tribes and different cultures, the Romans came up with a way to control these areas without using direct control. Rome founded colonies to control the land and resources. They would do this by negotiating and being what seemed “diplomatic” with the leaders of the tribes or civilizations. They would bestow titles of authority to important leaders if they submitted to Roman control. Colonies allowed partial Roman citizenship or full citizenship, but were first and foremost citizens of their colony. This was somewhat favorable to both sides because there would be less blood shed if they allowed the Romans to establish and maintain the mutually beneficial policies. However, the transformation of indigenous identity to a Roman identity was not an easy direct process. In the Gallic frontiers, the most submissive tribes received the most privileges, whereas the hostile tribes were given more obligations. One example of a ‘diplomatic’ treaty was with the Batavian tribe on the Gallic frontier. The treaty exempted the Bativians from paying tribute and tax if they supplied the Roman military with auxiliary troops and horses. In these areas we can see how culture and identity were starting to form. Material culture was identified through several items. Pottery displayed the diet within different communities. This is important because food is a large part of culture. Once the way in which people eat changes, there has been an influence from other customs. Additionally, clothing and dress influences bounced off of each other from Roman to indeginous wear because the cultures are dynamic within themselves. Gailic and Roman The discovery of lamps meant that the military was present. “It was not generally the artifacts that defined identity rather it was the specific associated behaviors and contexts of use”(Mattingly). Behavioral patterns allow us to understand the use and context. Lastly, mincing coins is another form in which cultural influence expanded Rome’s non-physical borders. There is evidence of minced coins in Ebusus, a Spanish island in the Mediterranean Sea. There are many reasons as to why these people wanted to have Roman coins. Some scholars “have adduced regional relations to explain the presence” for minced coins(Jimenez). Regional relations is when the common sense of identity is combined with influence of a higher more centralized power, such as the Roman empire, that results in a particular identity and shapes collective action within a geographical region. In terms of identity, other groups possibly desired to be more like the Romans. This was a form of assimilation. They desired to be a part of something or have someone else’s culture that they did not have. In terms of law, other groups possibly did this to show compliance to the Roman government. To conclude, Roman borders are ambiguous due to multiple factors. Material and cultural influence blurr the definite line where natural borders appeared as obstacles and military fortlets were constructed. The spread of Roman ideas and culture, such as dress and coinage, impacted identity beyond the borders. However, natural borders such as the Sahara Desert, stopped the Roman military from advancing and expanding. Tribes and civilizations outside the military line of fortlets still were surveilled and controlled through acts of keeping watch on the towers and forcing of diplomatic treaties. Rome intended to keep a tight grip even outside their lines. Material and cultural influence result in a more profound expansion due to the fact that Rome only had to exist and their culture was already spreading.
Works Cited:
Jimenez: Alcock, S. E., Egri, M., & D., F. J. (2016). Beyond boundaries: Connecting VISUAL cultures in the provinces of ancient Rome. In Beyond boundaries: Connecting visual cultures in the provinces of ancient Rome (pp. 16-31). Los Angeles: Getty Publications.
Mattingly: Brody, L. R., & Hoffman, G. L. (2014). Roman in the Provinces: Art on the periphery of Empire. In Roman in the provinces: Art on the periphery of Empire (pp. 35-59). Chestnut Hill, MA: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College. Symonds: A., S. M. (2018). Protecting the Roman EMPIRE: Fortlets, frontiers, and the quest for POST-CONQUEST SECURITY. In Protecting the Roman Empire: Fortlets, frontiers, and the quest for post-conquest security (pp. 1-31). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Romanization
The reading ‘Bativians and Romans on the Lower Rhine’ by Jan Slofstra discusses the themes of mobility and migration of Romanization. The overall process was a very unique approach. Instead of violence and war, the Romans understood the benefit of a diplomatic approach to benefit both sides. On the side of the Romans, they were able to save resources: equipment, weapons, and soldiers, in their military by controlling tribes through “civilizing ethos”. And on the other side, inferior tribes, with less technology and resources, would not be obliterated brutally by the Roman military. “Civilizing ethos” refers to a process of slow seduction. This was a manipulation technique where tribal leaders or “foreign elites” would start to identify with the Roman culture. This can also be seen as a form of Romanization. Romanization can be simply described as a process in which Roman culture was disseminated to those who did not practice their customs. Throughout Roman history there is record of Romans never imposing their culture, however it was a voluntary act, to a certain extent. “The combination of coercion and seduction was the key to the success of imperial power.” They also practiced the forms of accommodations versus adoption. This inferred that the identity of the indigenous people was being transformed into accommodating Roman ideas and morals. Coercion and seduction were tools in which Romans constructed accommodation of culture and identity. Growing integration of Romanisation was one of many impactful manners in which the Romans mobilized and migrated into other parts of the world. Coercion and seduction were seen in examples where tribes, like the Bativians, would pay tribute to the Romans by supplying them with military auxiliary troops. This tactic was to displace the strong young men of their tribe for a significant time period. Upon their return to their tribe, they would find that their home would be transformed into adopting the Roman way of life. The Romans used this technique because the soldiers were an impressionable audience. Prior to their displacement from their tribal home, there would have been some sort of tension between the tribe and the Romans. However, after a significant time away, the Romans would have been allowed to transform the others within the tribe to reflect their culture. They were seduced by the overwhelming “Roman wine and luxuries.” The most well known example of seduction and accommodation was between Rome and the Batavian tribe. The Bativians were a Chatti tribe in the middle Rhine region. The first move for manipulation was granting the “title of king” on to an aristocrat from the tribe, when before authority within the tribe was fluid and interchangeable. This was a known phenomenon in the establishment of a Roman treaty policy. However, in the end the Batavian tribe refused romanisation by revolting. Perhaps they formed an alliance with other tribes under suppression to overtake the Romans. There is not a wide variety of evidence found within archeology to suggest the extent of romanisation and its exact time period within the Bativians tribes. However, Romans used techniques of seduction and coercion to transform identities of indegiouns tribes to mobilize and migrate in order to expand their empire.